Great Britain

At the beginning of the 20th century the British Empire covered more than 11,400,000 square miles of territory. This made it the largest empire the world had ever known. The foundations for the empire were laid between 1750 and 1850 during which Britain acquired India, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, Rhodesia, Hong Kong, Gibraltar, several islands in the West Indies and various colonies on the African coast. The late 19th century saw the acquisition of new territories in Africa and by 1900 the British king, Edward VII, reigned over 410 million people.

The British Empire was protected by a Royal Navy that included 18 modern dreadnoughts, 29 battleships (pre-dreadnought design), 10 battlecruisers, 20 town cruisers, 15 scout cruisers, 200 destroyers and 150 cruisers.

By 1914 Britain was no longer the dominant economic power in Europe. It still had the world's largest shipbuilding industry but in other areas such as coal, iron, chemicals and light engineering, Britain was out-performed by Germany.

In 1914 Britain was a constitutional monarchy under George V. The government was formed by the majority party of the House of Commons. Members of this parliament were elected by some 8 million registered male voters. The aristocratic House of Lords had limited power to veto legislation.

The Liberal Party had governed Britain since 1906. Senior members of the government included Herbert Asquith (Prime Minister), Sir Edward Grey (Foreign Secretary) and David Lloyd George (Chancellor of the Exchequer). Ramsay MacDonald (Labour Party) and Andrew Bonar Law (Conservative Party) led the main opposition parties in the House of Commons.

Since the later part of the 19th century the British government had considered Germany to be the main threat to its empire. This was reinforced by Germany's decision in 1882 to form the Triple Alliance. Under the terms of this military alliance, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy agreed to support each other if attacked by either France or Russia.

France felt threatened by the Triple Alliance. Britain was also concerned by the growth in the German Navy and in 1904 the two countries signed the Entente Cordiale (friendly understanding). The objective of the alliance was to encourage co-operation against the perceived threat of Germany. Three years later, Russia, who also feared the growth in the German Army, joined Britain and France to form the Triple Entente.

By August 1914, Britain had 247,432 regular troops. About 120,000 of these were in the British Expeditionary Army and the rest were stationed abroad. There were soldiers in all Britain's overseas possessions except the white dominions of Australia, New Zealand and Canada.

The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) had been established in May 1912. By 1914 the RFC had 110 aircraft (BE-2, Farman MF-7, Avro 504, Vickers FB5, Bristol Scout, F.E.2) and 6 airships.

Russia

In 1914 the Russia Empire included Poland, Finland and large parts of Transcaucasia. The majority of the 166 million population were Slavs but as well as Jews and Turks there were dozens of other nationalities. Several of these groups wanted regional autonomy and this was the cause of a constant source of political conflict.

Tsar Nicholas II ruled the Russian Empire as an absolute monarch. However, following the loss of the war with Japan in 1905, serious disturbances took place in St. Petersburg and Nicholas was persuaded to accept a reduction in his power. In March, 1905, he announced plans to form a Russian Parliament called the State Duma. As this was only a consultative body, many Russians felt that this reform did not go far enough and over the next few years the country remained unstable.

The Russian government considered Germany to be the main threat to its territory. This was reinforced by Germany's decision to form the Triple Alliance. Under the terms of this military alliance, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy agreed to support each other if attacked by either France or Russia. In 1907 Russia joined Britain and France to form the Triple Entente.

Industrial unrest in Russia continued throughout this period and in 1912 hundreds of striking miners were massacred at the Lena goldfields. During the first six months of 1914, almost half of the total industrial workforce in Russia took part in strikes.

In 1914 the Russian Army was the largest army in the world. However, Russia's poor roads and railways made the effective deployment of these soldiers difficult.

The Russian Army Air Service (RAAS) was established in 1912 and two years later owned 360 aircraft and 16 airships. This made the RAAS the largest airforce in the world.

In 1914 the Russian Navy had 4 battleships, 10 cruisers, 21 destroyers, 11 submarines and 50 torpedo boats.

Italy

The independent state of Italy emerged from a long nationalist struggle for unification that started with the revolution of 1848. The southern kingdoms of Sardinia and Sicily joined in 1866 and by 1914 only the Vatican and San Marino retained independence within Italy. However, a large Italian population remained within Austria-Hungary in the Trentino and Trieste regions.

By 1911 Italy had a population of 34.7 million. Although primarily an agricultural economy, there was considerable industry in the northern areas of the country. To feed its growing population, Italy needed to import some foods, notably grain from Russia and Germany.

Italy was a constitutional monarchy. Victor Emmanuel III had been king since 1900. People were appointed to the upper house of the National Assembly but the lower house was elected by universal adult male suffrage. The prime minister was Giovanni Giolitti but after the 1913 elections when socialists and radicals did well, he had a greatly reduced majority in the National Assembly.

Italy had been members of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary since 1882. However, this alliance was unpopular with large numbers of Italians and there was some doubt about Italy's military involvement in event of a war with members of the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia).

The Italian Government introduced military conscription in 1907. However, only about 25 per cent of those eligible for conscription received training and by 1912 there were only 300,000 men in the Italian Army.

Australia

Australia became a self-governing dominion of the British Empire in 1901. Although the federal government was appointed by a British governor, the two-tier parliament was elected by adult suffrage. Unlike in Britain, Australian women were granted the vote in 1902.

By the beginning of the 20th century the population of around 5 million was mainly concentrated on the coast but an estimated 200,000 native Australians were living in the interior. The Immigration Restriction Act of July 1902 imposed a linguistic ability test so as to maintain what became known as a 'White Australia' policy.

The Australian Army was formed in 1901. It was a very small army and was organism solely for home defence. The regular army was backed-up by a part-time volunteer militia (45,000 men in 1914). All males of combat age were required by law to undertake military training.

New Zealand

New Zealand was governed as an autonomous dominion of the British Empire. A national assembly was elected by universal suffrage but women were not allowed to become representatives. William Ferguson Massey, the leader of the Conservative Reform Party, was appointed prime minister in July 1912.

In 1914 New Zealand had a population of just over 1.1 million. Most of the population were the result of British emigration but there were also about 50,000 Maoris.

From the age of 12 all males in New Zealand received military training. In 1911 New Zealand formed a 25,000, part-time national militia. Most of the men who volunteered to join the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) in August 1914 came from this Territorial Army.

South Africa

At the beginning of the 20th century there were four white South African colonies. Two of these, Transvaal and Orange Free State, were governed by European populations of predominantly Dutch origin, known as Afrikaners or Boers, while Natal and Cape Colony were ruled by British settlers. After the Boer War the colonies were united to form the Union of South Africa (1910).

South Africa was a self-governing dominion within the British Empire. A British governor general was nominal head of state but power rested with an Executive Committee headed by General Luis Botha. In South Africa native peoples and women were barred from public office.

The South African Army was formed in 1912. It had five regular mounted regiments and a small artillery section. Conscription was also introduced in 1912 and half of the European males aged 16 to 25 were drafted by lots into the Active Citizen Force (ACF).

Rhodesia

The African colony of Rhodesia was divided into Northern and Southern administrations (modern Zambia and Zimbabwe). The colony was occupied, settled and administered by the British South Africa Company after 1890. A local game hunter, Major Boyd Cunningham, established the volunteer Northern Rhodesia Rifles in 1914 and advocated that the force would support Britain in event of war with Germany.

Romania

Romania was a autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire until it gained independence in 1877. A constitutional monarchy, King Carol I (a relative of Kaiser Wilhelm II) ruled the country in 1914. After the Second Balkan War in 1913 Romania's size increased to 140,000 square kilometres.

Romania's economy was primarily based on agriculture and its 7.5 million population were mainly concentrated in the fertile Wallachian Plains. Romania depended heavily on trade with Germany. Its other powerful neighbour, Austria-Hungary, was unpopular as it was believed that the government had done very little to stop the maltreatment of 3 million Romanians in Transylvania. All adult males spent time in the territorial reserve but the Romanian Army contained less than 100,000 men.

Greece

Greece established a constitutional monarchy in 1829 after an uprising against the Turkish Ottoman Empire. King George was on the throne until assassinated in Salonika on 18th March, 1913. He was succeeded by his pro-German son, Constantine I. This created conflict with his prime minister, Eleftherios Venizelos, who favoured Britain.

In peacetime the Greek Army contained about 32,000 men. However, during the Balkan Wars (1912-13) this was increased to 210,000. Senior officers were strongly royalist and tended to support Germany in its disputes with Britain.

France

The French Third Republic was created following the defeat of France by Prussia in 1871. After the war, the leader of the new unified Germany, Otto von Bismarck, was able to take Alsace and Lorraine, Strasburg and the great fortress of Metz from France.

The new French parliament established after the Franco-Prussian War, comprised an indirectly Senate and an elected Chamber of Deputies. In 1914 Raymond Poincare was President of France and Rene Viviani was his prime minister.

In the first decade of the 20th century France was still an overwhelmingly agricultural country and was self-sufficient in food. France was one of the world's leading trading nations but industrial production was lower than both Germany and Britain.

The French government considered Germany to be the main threat to its territory. This was reinforced by Germany's decision in 1882 to form the Triple Alliance. Under the terms of this military alliance, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy agreed to support each other if attacked by either France or Russia.

Britain shared France's fears concerning the Triple Alliance and in 1904 the two countries signed the Entente Cordiale (friendly understanding). The objective of the alliance was to encourage co-operation against the perceived threat of Germany. Three years later, Russia, who also feared the growth in the German Army, joined Britain and France to form the Triple Entente.

The French Army Air Service (Aéronautique Militaire) was formed in October 1910. France led the world in early aircraft design and by mid-1912 they had five squadrons (escadrilles). This had grown to 132 machines (21 escadrilles) by 1914.

Expenditure on the French Navy doubled between 1910 and 1914. By the summer of 1914 France had 19 battleships, 32 cruisers, 86 destroyers, 34 submarines and 115 torpedo boats. The French government had ordered another 14 battleships but they were still waiting for them to be delivered.

In January 1914 the French Army had 47 divisions (777,000 French and 46,000 colonial troops) in 21 regional corps, with attached cavalry and field-artillery units. Most these troops were deployed inside France with the bulk along the eastern frontier as part of Plan 17. With the fear of war with Germany a further 2.9 million men were mobilized during the summer of 1914.

Belgium

Belgium had been a constitutional monarchy since it gained its independence from the Netherlands in 1831. As Belgium occupied the only wide open space between France and Germany, its neutrality was a vital component of the European balance of power. The foreign policy of King Albert I, who had ruled the country since 1909, was to maintain a neutral stance between its two powerful and antagonistic neighbours and did not join either the Triple Alliance or the Triple Entente.

In 1914 Belgium had a population of around 7.5 million. A prosperous trading nation, with major ports at Antwerp and Ostend, Belgium had good supplies of coal and iron and an efficient railway system.

Belgium had universal male suffrage but the well-educated and wealthy were allowed up to three votes each. In 1914 power was held by Baron de Broqueville and his Catholic Party.

Belgium had a small regular army of 43,000 men with another 115,000 trained reserves. The Belgian Air Force had only one squadron of 12 aircraft.

USA

At the beginning of the 20th century the United States was the most powerful country in the world. The world leader in coal and steel production, the USA was also a major producer of raw materials. The most important of these being wheat, cotton and oil, which accounted for more than a third of all the USA's exports. With a population of over 100,000,000, the USA had the potential to decide the outcome of the First World War. However, in 1914, the country had no overseas alliances and on 19th August, President Woodrow Wilson declared a policy of strict neutrality.

Although the USA had strong ties with Britain, Wilson was concerned about the large number of people in the country who had been born in Germany and Austria. Other influential political leaders argued strongly in favour of the USA maintaining its isolationist policy. This included the pacifist pressure group, the American Union Against Militarism.

Some people in the USA argued that the country should expand the size of its armed forces in case of war. General Leonard Wood, the former US Army Chief of Staff, formed the National Security League in December, 1914. Wood and his organisation called for universal military training and the introduction of conscription as a means of increasing the size of the US Army.

Canada

n 1867 the four existing provinces of Canada - Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick - were united into one dominion of the British Empire. Later Manitoba (1870), British Columbia (1871), Prince Edward Island (1873), Alberta and Saskatchewan (1905) joined the other provinces. By 1911 Canada had a population of 7.2 million. A quarter of Canadians were French-speaking and most of these lived in Quebec Province.

The French-Canadian, Wilfrid Laurier, the leader of the Liberal Party, became prime minister in 1896 and he held office for fifteen years. Robert Borden, the leader of the Conservative Party, replaced Laurier in October, 1911.

In 1914 Canada had just over 3,000 regular soldiers. Based at harbour fortifications, the Canadian Army was backed up by a militia of local volunteers. Expecting a war in Europe, during the summer of 1914 the Canadian government asked for volunteers to join a Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF).

Serbia

Conquered by the Turks in 1389, Serbia did not regain independence until 1878, and established a monarchy in 1882. Geographically a land-locked state, Serbia had the Austro-Hungarian Empire on its borders in the north, and Romania and Bulgaria in the east. To the south lay Macedonia and the northern shores of Greece, including the major port of Salonika.

Serbia was an overwhelmingly rural society. It had few mineral or industrial resources and had less than 10,000 people employed in manufacturing. The economy relied heavily on the exports of food to Germany, Turkey and Austria-Hungary.

In 1903 Dragutin Dimitrijevic, Voja Tankosic and a group of junior officers planned the assassination of the the autocratic and unpopular King Alexander of Serbia. The group stormed the royal palace and killed both the king and his wife, Queen Draga. Soon afterwards, Karadjordjevic was elected king of Serbia by the Serbian parliament and Nikola Pasic became prime minister. The new National Assembly was elected by all civilian male tax payers.

Serbian encouragement of Slav separatist movements in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia angered the government of Austria-Hungary. Serbia received support from Russia in this policy but the two countries were unable to prevent the Austro-Hungarian Army from seizing Bosnia in 1908.

In May 1911, ten men in Serbia formed the Black Hand Secret Society. Early members included Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic, the chief of the Intelligence Department of the Serbian General Staff, Major Voja Tankosic and Milan Ciganovic. The main objective of the Black Hand was the creation, by means of violence, of a Greater Serbia. Its stated aim was: "To realize the national ideal, the unification of all Serbs. This organisation prefers terrorist action to cultural activities; it will therefore remain secret."

Dragutin Dimitrijevic, who used the codename, Apis, established himself as the leader of the Black Hand. In 1911 he sent a member to assassinate Emperor Franz Josef. When this failed, Dimitrijevic turned his attention to General Oskar Potiorek, Governor of the Austrian provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Dimitrijevic recruited Muhamed Mehmedbasic to kill Potiorek with a poisoned dagger. However, Mehmedbasic returned to Belgrade after failing to carry out the task.

In 1912, during the Balkan War, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro won a series of comprehensive military victories over Turkish forces. The following year, Bulgaria, disappointed by the terms of the Treaty of London, attacked Greek and Serbian forces, but was quickly defeated when invaded by Romania. The subsequent peace treaty doubled the size of Serbia and gave Greece control over most of the Aegean coast.

After the war Serbia had a population of 4.5 million. All males aged between 21 and 46 were liable for compulsory military service and by 1914 the Serbian Army contained about 260,000 men.

(1) Manchester Guardian (24th July, 1914)

Austria-Hungary has addressed a strong Note to Serbia, attempting to place upon her a great part of the responsibility for the murder at Sarajevo of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife. That crime was, it is known, the outcome of the Greater Serbia propaganda which aims at joining the Serb provinces of the Dual Monarchy to Serbia.

The Austrian Note is severer in tone than well-informed persons thought probable, and its delivery may be followed by a grave international crisis.

(2) Manchester Guardian (29th July, 1914)

Austria has declared war upon Serbia. An unconfirmed report says Austro-Hungarian troops have invaded Serbia by crossing the River Save at Mitrovitz. Two Serbian steamers have been seized on the Danube.

In Vienna it is believed that Montenegro, which stands with her Serb sister state, is mobilising, and that a joint force is gathering near the Bosnian frontier in readiness to deliver a counter-stroke towards Sarajevo.

Our St. Petersburg correspondent, telegraphing last night, says if Austria occupies Belgrade, Russia will reply at once by mobilising all her army. Her partial mobilisation is in full swing.

In Berlin, it is believed that if Russia calls her troops to the colours, Germany will at once follow her example. The fleet has returned to home waters.

India

In 1914 India had a population of over 320 million. The British king, George V, was Emperor of India, ruling through an appointed viceroy based in New Delhi. The viceroy appointed his own cabinet from about 6,500 British officials. The 1909 India Act allowed Indians a share in the work of the legislative councils.

The Indian Army was reorganized by Lord Kitchener while he was commander-in-chief in India (1902-09). Kitchener established an army of 10 divisions (155,000) backed by an internal security force of some 80,000 troops. About a quarter of the infantry and cavalry troops and almost all artillery personnel in the army were British.

Portugal

Portugal established its monarchy in 1128. In the 19th century there was a dramatic growth in republicanism as a result of royal extravagance, a reactionary Church and large-scale poverty. In February, 1908, Carlos I and his brother were assassinated. After a insurrection in October 1910, Manuel II fled to England. Manoel de Arriaga became Portugal's new leader.

In 1914 the Portuguese Army began skirmishing with German troops on the frontier between Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique) and German East Africa. German agents also attempted to incite a tribal uprising in Angola. However, the Portuguese Army contained only 33,000 men and was not in a good position to declare war on Germany.

Montenegro

Montenegro had been fighting for its independence from Turkey for over 600 years. In 1912 Montenegro joined with Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria in a war with Turkey. This Balkan War helped to reinforce Montenegro's independence from Turkey.

By 1914 Montenegro had a population of about half a million. Most of its 15,000 square kilometres was mountainous. Although fairly small, the Montenegrin Army contained experienced guerrilla fighters and would be a useful ally if war broke out in Europe.

Poland

Poland had originally been an independent kingdom but by the late 18th century it had been divided up between Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany.

In 1914, Roman Dmowski, the main leader of the Polish nationalist movement, believed the best way to achieve a unified and independent Poland, was to support the Triple Entente against the Triple Alliance.

Jozef Pilsudski, a nationalist leader based in Galicia, disagreed and saw Russia as the main enemy. Pilsudski began building a private army that he hoped would enable Poland to fight for its independence from Russia.